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Peru has generated and continues to generate an atmosphere, between the real and the fantastic, which keeps alive the possibility of further great archaeological discoveries, including the romantic notion of finding a lost city. Year after year, dozens of researchers head for its mountains and thick forests, or struggle across its deserts, in search of a little history, fame and - why not - lost treasure.
Text: Alvaro Rocha Revilla
Photos: Walter Hupiu
 They say that the real attraction of lost cities is that they are lost. Many of them (such as Paititi) do not even seem to have a basis in reality and, nevertheless, great sacrifices are made by those in search of them, in terms of effort, time and money. And although finding a lost city is harder than winning the lottery, it is clear that of all the things lost in history there is nothing more seductive than a city.
Among the legions of anonymous explorers a lucky few achieve the success they seek. Hiram Bingham was conscious of his tremendous good fortune when he made the scientific discovery of Machu Picchu on June 24th 1911: "Who would believe what I have found?" noted the stunned Yale professor and historian in his journal. After all, he had only paid one sol to the boy named Pablo Álvarez who led him to the main buildings of Machu Picchu, covered for centuries by the forest. A very reasonable price indeed for the glory of what is arguably the most important archaeological find of modern times.
Machu Picchu stories
In general, explorers and their Indiana Jones-type paraphernalia are not well-liked by archaeologists and academics, who consider them unscientific. They even accuse them of being looters and tomb raiders. According to the British journalist and long-time Peru resident Nicholas Asheshov, this is mostly sour grapes. "Archaeologists are trained to keep their noses to the ground, preferably underground. Their familiarity with practical detail means they can't see the wood for the trees", says Asheshov. What is certain, as in the case of Machu Picchu, is that explorers show archaeologists the way (as well as opening the way to guides and tour operators, of course).
However, luck also plays an important role in these risky enterprises. Hiram Bingham (1875-1956) was in fact searching for legendary Vilcabamba the Old, the last capital of the Incas, when he came across Machu Picchu. Vilcabamba had to wait until 1964 to be identified by Gene Savoy, but it cannot compare to the splendour of Machu Picchu.
Bingham's discovery has been questioned by many scholars: The historian Mariana Mould de Pease even claims that the American was not the "scientific discoverer" of Machu Picchu, but rather merely the "scientific communicator". This is perhaps a little unfair to the person who led four expeditions to Cusco between 1909 and 1915 and who, as well as the extraordinary Inca city, also revealed to the world the whereabouts of remarkable archaeological complexes such as Wiñay Wayna and Phuyuphatamarca on what is today known as the "Inca Trail". Of course, as the renowned Peruvian intellectual Federico Kauffmann Doig has said, there were many people in Cusco who knew of the existence of Machu Picchu, such as Albert Gieseckei, who advised Bingham. And then there was Agustín Lizárraga, who had visited the ruins in 1902, although his only aim was to find treasure to sell. But, as the great Luis E. Valcárcel wrote: "It shows a certain narrow-mindedness to not give credit to the first person to recognise the great importance of what had been discovered...".
What does continue to cause controversy is the fact that the most important pieces discovered at Machu Picchu are still housed at the Peabody Museum of Natural History at the University of Yale, and it will be very difficult for the Peruvian state to recover them, given that when they were found the international laws which protect national heritage today were non-existent.
 The method
In 1839, the Maya civilization was rescued from historical oblivion when a young lawyer, John L. Stephens, and the artist Frederic Catherwood ventured into the humid forests of Honduras. They had in their power a manuscript from 1700 which spoke of important ruins on the banks of the Conán River. After overcoming many difficulties (including being jailed), and just as they were about to give up their search, in the midst of thick vegetation they stumbled upon the remains of magnificent palaces, pyramids and stelae. The land upon which these sumptuous buildings stood was immediately bought up by them for the derisory sum of fifty dollars.
Towards the end of the 19th century, the American archaeologist Edward Herbert Thompson, spurred by his reading of the chronicles of Bishop Diego de Landa, who wrote his "Relación de las cosas de Yucatán" in 1566, organised an expedition the corollary of which was the discovery of Chichén Itzá - deep in the tangled forest of Yucatán and perhaps the most dazzling of all the cities of the Mayan empire.
In both of these cases the methodology of lost city exploration was laid down: The key is to base one's research on historical documentation, pay attention to the writings of the chroniclers and blow the dust of old documents in the libraries of convents and monasteries, which are an excellent source of information. Then, it is a question of hunching oneself over an outspread map and planning a route, carefully organising the logistics and remaining steadfast in the face of inevitable obstacles whilst passionately searching to fulfil one's dream. Bingham, it should be said, carefully studied the work of the chroniclers before setting off on mule back into the Urubamba Gorge.
The worst error one can make - one which has led to countless failures - is to set off to explore a little-known geographical area in the hope of striking it lucky without basing oneself on historical evidence. In such cases, a strong will is the explorer's worst enemy, and one which has led many to the doors of Hades rather than the gates of El Dorado. Nor is it enough to follow the legends and references of local inhabitants, which are usually exaggerated. History is the key to endeavours of this type, as those who go in search of sunken treasure ships know very well: they study carefully all historical documentation before they venture out to sea.
Perhaps it is the illustrious traveller Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859) who best defines "the right stuff" found only in great explorers. Humboldt suggested that one should study reality, whilst "conserving always a rigorous and at the same time exalted vision of the world". In other words, scientific investigation with a generous dose of idealism would seem to be essential weapons in the explorer's arsenal.
Coordinates of success
In Peru not a day goes by without someone cooking up a new project to find lost cities, temples, mausoleums and hidden tombs. More than anywhere else in the world, more than in China or Turkey, it is in Peru where invaluable archaeological jewels have been uncovered in recent years: Pajatén in 1963, Vilcabamba the Old in 1964, Mamería in 1979, Sipán in 1987, El Brujo in 1989, Caral in 1994, the Lake of the Mummies in 1997, Cerro Las Cruces in 2001, Shicras and La Penitencia in 2006. Without mentioning the infinity of archaeological sites which the press has not even picked up on.
 There remain at least two potential areas where there may still be a chance of finding the remains of lost civilizations. The most well-trodden area is to the north of Cusco, and it has been combed exhaustively by explorers of all types. This is the geographical area dominated by the Cordillera Vilcabamba, an intermediate region between the mountains and the rainforests bordered by the Apurímac and Urubamba rivers, in the province of La Convención. This is where Machu Picchu and Choquequirao stand, the two most splendid Inca cities known to us, as well as Vilcabamba the Old, the last stronghold of the Incas.
Choquequirao is an example of how apathy can lead to oblivion in a country so fractured that it is incapable of recognising the greatness of its past. Despite the fact that its existence was first reported in the 18th century, and that it had been visited by none other than Eugene De Sartiges, Charles Wiener and Hiram Bingham himself, this city remained virtually unknown by most Peruvians until a decade ago.
This part of the Cordillera Vilcabamba, dominated by Mount Salkantay, is now explored season after season by audacious adventurers in search of a slice of its glorious Inca past. Expeditions leave from the villages of Mollepata, Cachora and Huancacalle and follow the slippery trails of the Incas over the mountains, through steep passes and past freezing lakes until the ancient pathways peter out in overwhelming forests. In 2002 the most recent find in the region was unveiled: Corihuayarachina, six square kilometres of rustic buildings on Cerro Victoria in the district of Santa Rosa at 3,300 metres above sea level. The site has still not been opened up to tourism. According to the British writer and travel guide Peter Frost, "This site could give us information about the Inca civilization from its emergence to its demise, for it remained undiscovered and therefore free of contact with European culture...".
Magic and mystery, like an unstoppable breeze, still run through the peaks and valleys of the Vilcabamba region and the still partly unexplored forests of La Convención, where the Spanish barely set foot. As Rudyard Kipling said: "There is something lost behind the mountains. It is lost and it is waiting for you. Go and find it!"
Chachapoya territory
The second area with great lost city potential is the mountainous forest region of the modern departments of Amazonas and San Martín, once inhabited by the Chachapoyas people. In 1834, long before the discovery of Machu Picchu, a judge from the city of Chachapoyas, Juan Crisóstomo Nieto, was on his way to settle a land dispute when by chance he came across the remains of the magnificent fortress of Kuélap. The site was subsequently visited by the likes of Raimondi, Middendorf and Horkheimer and the Frenchmen Bandelier and Langlois described the archaeological remains exhaustively, as did the Peruvian scholars Federico Kauffmann Doig and Alfredo Narváez more recently. Nevertheless, in spite of the many studies made, this culture was largely forgotten until 1963, when a group of villagers from Pataz stumbled upon Gran Pajatén.
 In 1984, Kauffmann Doig revealed to the world the sarcophagi of Karajía, which clearly underscored the complex spirituality and refined artistic sense of the Chachapoyas culture. The following year Gene Savoy mistakenly renamed as Gran Vilaya a different set of ruins, between those investigated by Kauffmann and Cacahuasha. In the 1990s, Keith Muscutt ventured into the province of Mariscal Cáceres de San Martín and discovered a series of archaeological sites which Savoy then visited at the beginning of this century. More recently, Muscutt discovered La Penitencia in the same area (See box).
Without a doubt, this area is going to bring discoveries to explorers and plenty of work for archaeologists. The river basins of Huabayacu, Jelache, Pajatén and Monte Cristo still guard many secrets under their forest canopy.
And, of course, we must not forget to mention, among the very latest archaeological finds in Peru, the work that is being done in the northern regions Lambayeque and La Libertad at Sipán, Chotuna, Batán Grande, El Brujo and Huaca de la Luna, where researchers have uncovered the splendour of the pre-Inca Mochica culture. These sumptuous tombs, with their delicate gold work and remarkable high-relief friezes, have astonished the entire world and found their way onto more than one cover of National Geographic.
In search of Paititi
As ethereal as El Dorado, the myth of Paititi continues to mobilise expeditions in search of an Inca city allegedly lost in the heart of the jungle. During the colonial period it was sought avidly all the way from Santa Cruz (Bolivia) to Asunción (Paraguay) and, of course, Cusco. And the pace of exploration has barely faltered since: at least two expeditions a year go in search of the gold of the Incas in almost uninhabited regions of forest crisscrossed by rivers.
 What is most amazing is the fact that so many of these adventurers believe that what they are seeking is a living city, inhabited by the descendants of the Incas and guarded by the serpents, jaguars and fearsome sentinels of local legends. The murder of Percy Fawcett in Brazil in 1925 during his search for Paititi served only to add more fuel to such fiery zeal.
One of the most persistent of these explorers was Arequipa-born Carlos Neuenschwander Landa, who from the 1960s made twenty-six incursions into the area where he thought Paititi must lie. He took aerial photographs of Inca roads and interpreted the petrogyphs of Pusharo in Madre de Dios as a map of Paititi. The search was concentrated on the table mountain of Pantiacolla. In 1975, satellite photos from Landsatt II suggested the existence of pyramids in the area, and in 1979 Herbert and Nicole Cartagena claimed to have seen "wild savages more than two metres tall" and huge ruins, but the couple became lost in the forest and had to be evacuated by helicopter. That same year the Inca city of Mamería, long-devastated by the forest, was discovered. The zealous Cartagenas, accompanied by the French archaeologist Thierry Jamin, continue to search for Paititi.
 Other expeditions in search of Paititi tend to concentrate their efforts in other areas. The Argentine historian Fernando J. Soto Roland believes that Pantiacolla was merely a point of access and that Paititi itself will be discovered much farther east, somewhere between northern Bolivia and the extreme western edge of Brazil. Others do not stray so far: In 2006 Gregory Deyermenjian journeyed to the Yavero River, a tributary of the Urubamba. Deyermenjian has been studying the area for a decade and has found the Inca road Neuenschwander saw from the air, lost in the dense vegetation.
However, sceptics, including the Cusco-born historian Víctor Ángles Vargas, doubt that the Incas would have fled with their reserves of gold into the jungle regions: "The Incas thought the Spanish were gods and they handed over to them every last piece of their gold. There is nothing left. There is no Paititi".
Although some hold that the persistence of the myth of Paititi is the product of cultural resistance on the part of the people of Cusco (a psychological refuge for a defeated culture), what is certain is that as long as the legend persists without being deconstructed reason will not prevail. After all, when it comes to lost cities all that glitters must be gold, and explorers will continue to trek into the unknown in the hope of finding their way, through the mud and undergrowth, into the pages of history.
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